Chamic languages
| Chamic | |
|---|---|
| Aceh–Chamic | |
| Geographic distribution | Indonesia (Aceh), Cambodia, Vietnam, Thailand, China (Hainan Island), various countries with recent immigrants |
| Linguistic classification | Austronesian
|
| Proto-language | Proto-Chamic |
| Subdivisions |
|
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-2 / 5 | cmc |
| Glottolog | cham1327 (Aceh–Chamic)cham1330 (Chamic) |
| ELP | Lua error in Module:Endangered_Languages_Project at line 21: attempt to index field 'wikibase' (a nil value). |
| File:Chamic languages.svg The languages in Cambodia, Vietnam, Hainan, and the northern tip of Sumatra are Chamic languages (purple). | |
| File:Chamic language.jpg Varieties of the Chamic languages | |
The Chamic languages, also known as Aceh–Chamic and Acehnese–Chamic, are a group of ten languages spoken in Aceh (Sumatra, Indonesia) and in parts of Cambodia, Thailand, Vietnam and Hainan, China. The Chamic languages are a subgroup of Malayo-Polynesian languages in the Austronesian family. The ancestor of this subfamily, proto-Chamic, is associated with the Sa Huỳnh culture, its speakers arriving in what is now Vietnam from Formosa.[1]
The most widely spoken Chamic languages are Acehnese with 3.5 million speakers, Cham with about 280,000, and Jarai with about 230,000, in both Cambodia and Vietnam. Tsat is the most northern and least spoken, with only 3000 speakers.
History
[edit | edit source]Cham has the oldest literary history of any Austronesian language. The Dong Yen Chau inscription, written in Old Cham, dates from the late 4th century AD.
Extensive borrowing resulting from long-term contact has caused Chamic and the Bahnaric languages, a branch of the Austroasiatic family, to have many vocabulary items in common.[1][2]
Classification
[edit | edit source]Graham Thurgood gives the following classification for the Chamic languages.[3] Individual languages are marked by italics.
- Chamic
- Acehnese
- Coastal Chamic
- Haroi (Vietnamese: H'roi)
- Cham (Vietnamese: Chăm)
- Western Cham
- Eastern Cham (Panduranga Cham)
- Highlands Chamic
- Rade–Jarai
- Bih[a]
- Rade (Vietnamese: Ê-đê)
- Jarai (Vietnamese: Gia Rai)
- Chru–Northern
- Chru (Vietnamese: Chu Ru)
- Northern Cham
- Roglai (Vietnamese: Ra Glai)
- Northern Roglai
- Southern Roglai
- Tsat
- Roglai (Vietnamese: Ra Glai)
- Rade–Jarai
The Proto-Chamic numerals from 7 to 9 are shared with those of the Malayic languages, providing partial evidence for a Malayo-Chamic subgrouping.[4]
Roger Blench[5] also proposes that there may have been at least one other Austroasiatic branch in coastal Vietnam that is now extinct, based on various Austroasiatic loanwords in modern-day Chamic languages that cannot be clearly traced to existing Austroasiatic branches.[5][6]
Reconstruction
[edit | edit source]| Proto-Chamic | |
|---|---|
| Reconstruction of | Chamic languages |
Reconstructed ancestors | |
The Proto-Chamic reconstructed below is from Graham Thurgood's 1999 publication From Ancient Cham to Modern Dialects.[1]
Consonants
[edit | edit source]The following table of Proto-Chamic presyllabic consonants are from Thurgood.[7] There are a total of 13–14 presyllabic consonants depending on whether or not *ɲ is counted. Non-presyllabic consonants include *ʔ, *ɓ, *ɗ, *ŋ, *y, *w. Aspirated consonants are also reconstructable for Proto-Chamic.
| Bilabial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Plosive | Voiceless | p | t | c | k | |
| Voiced | b | d | ɟ | ɡ | ||
| Nasal | m | ɲ[8] | ||||
| Lateral | l | |||||
| Tap or trill | r | |||||
| Fricative | s | h | ||||
The following consonant clusters are reconstructed for Proto-Chamic:[9] *pl-, *bl-, *kl-, *gl-, *pr-, *tr-, *kr-, *br-, *dr-. Initial *n did not exist, it was replaced by *l instead (*nanaq → *lanah "pus").[10]
Vowels
[edit | edit source]There are four vowels (*-a, *-i, *-u, and *-e, or alternatively *-ə) and three diphthongs (*-ay, *-uy, *-aw).[1]
| Height | Front | Central | Back | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Close | i /i/ | u /u/ | |||||
| Mid | e /e/ | ([ə /ə/]) | |||||
| Open | a /a/ |
Morphology
[edit | edit source]Reconstructed Proto-Chamic morphological components are:[1]
- *tə-: the "inadvertent" prefix
- *mə-: common verb prefix
- *pə-: causative prefix
- *bɛʔ-: negative imperative prefix (borrowed from Austroasiatic languages)
- *-əm-: nominalizing infix
- *-ən-: instrumental infix (borrowed from Austroasiatic languages)
Pronouns
[edit | edit source]Proto-Chamic has the following personal pronouns:[11]
Singular
- *kəu – 'I' (familiar)
- *hulun – 'I' (polite); 'slave'
- *dahlaʔ – 'I' (polite)
- *hã – 'you; thou'
- *ñu – 'he, she; they'
Plural
- *kaməi – 'we' (exclusive)
- *ta – 'we' (inclusive)
- *drəi – 'we' (inclusive); reflexive
- *gəp – other; group (borrowed from Austroasiatic languages)
Proto-Chamic and Chamic lexical correspondences
[edit | edit source]Proto-Chamic, Mainland Chamic, Acehnese and Malay comparative table:
| Gloss | Proto-Chamic | Western Cham | Eastern Cham | Roglai | Aceh | Malay |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| one | *sa | /sa ha/ | /tha/ | /sa/ | /sa/ | satu |
| seven | *tujuh | /taçuh/ | /taçŭh/ | /tijuh/ | /tujoh/ | tujuh |
| fire | *ʔapuy | /pui/ | /apuy/ | /apui/ | /apui/ | api |
| sky | *laŋit | /laŋiʔ/ | /laŋiʔ/ Lingik | /laŋĩːʔ/ | /laŋɛt/ | langit |
| rice (husked) | *braːs | /prah/ | /prah-l/ | /bra/ | /brɯəh/ | beras |
| iron | *bisεy | /pasay/ | /pithăy/ | /pisǝy/ | /bɯsɔə/ | besi |
| sugarcane | *tabɔw-v | /tapau/ | /tapăw/ | /tubəu/ | /tɯbɛə/ | tebu |
Notes
[edit | edit source]- ^ According to Glottolog 5.1 (2024) it is classified as a separate language. But its classification is still doubtful, some linguists consider it as a Rade dialect.
References
[edit | edit source]- ^ a b c d e f Thurgood 1999.
- ^ Sidwell 2009.
- ^ Thurgood 1999, p. 36.
- ^ Thurgood 1999, p. 37.
- ^ a b Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
- ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
- ^ Thurgood 1999, p. 68.
- ^ Reflexes of ɲ are rare in modern Chamic languages.
- ^ Thurgood 1999, p. 93.
- ^ Thurgood 1999, p. 69.
- ^ Thurgood 1999, pp. 247–248.
Bibliography
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- Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).