Han Chinese Eight Banners

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This article is about the Han Chinese division of the Outer Eight Banners. For the bondservant companies under the Manchu banners, commonly called "bondservant Han army" or "Imperial Household Han army", see Cigu Niru.
Han Chinese Eight Banners
Active1642–1928
CountryFile:Flag of the Qing Dynasty (1889-1912).svg Qing dynasty
Beiyang government
TypeInfantry, Cavalry, Artillery, Navy
Part ofHan Chinese Banner Commanders
Garrison/HQBeijing, Guangzhou, Fuzhou, Xi'an, Hangzhou, Northeast China
EngagementsQing conquest of the Ming
Commanders
Notable
commanders		Third-class Viscount Li Yongfang
Second-class Viscount Tong Yangxing
Third-class Viscount Shi Tingzhu
Prince of Pingnan Shang Kexi
Prince of Jingnan Geng Zhongming
Zu Dashou
Third-class Light Chariot Lieutenant Hong Chengchou
Insignia
Military bannersUpper Three Banners:
Bordered Yellow Banner File:Bordered Yellow Banner.svg
Plain Yellow Banner File:Plain Yellow Banner.svg
Plain White Banner File:Plain White Banner.svg
Lower Five Banners:
Plain Red Banner File:Plain Red Banner.svg
Bordered White Banner File:Bordered White Banner.svg
Bordered Red Banner File:Bordered Red Banner.svg
Plain Blue Banner File:Plain Blue Banner.svg
Bordered Blue Banner File:Bordered Blue Banner.svg
Han Chinese Eight Banners
Chinese name
Traditional Chinese漢軍八旗
Simplified Chinese汉军八旗
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyinhànjūn bāqí
Yue: Cantonese
Yale Romanizationhon gwān baat kèih
Jyutpinghon3 gwan1 baat3 kei4
Mongolian name
Mongolian CyrillicХятад найман хошуу
Manchu name
Manchu scriptᡠᠵᡝᠨ ᠴᠣᠣᡥᠠᡳ ᡤᡡᠰᠠ
Abkaiujen qouhai gvsa
Möllendorffujen coohai gūsa

Han Chinese Eight Banners (Manchu: ᡠᠵᡝᠨ ᠴᠣᠣᡥᠠᡳ ᡤᡡᠰᠠ, Möllendorff: ujen coohai gūsa[1]) or Ujen Cooha[2](Manchu: ᡠᠵᡝᠨ ᠴᠣᠣᡥᠠ, Möllendorff: ujen cooha;[Note 1][3][4]), originally called Eight Banners Han Army,[Note 2][5] and commonly referred to as the Han Army,[6][7] Han Army Banner Division or the Han-martial Eight Banners,[8] were hereditary military units, and later honorary posts of the Qing dynasty. The Han Chinese Eight Banners formed a key component of the dynasty's Eight Banner system, and its members were known as Hanjun (Chinese: 漢軍; pinyin: hànjūn), or Han Army bannermen.[9][10][11]

Description

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Members were originally inhabitants of Liaodong (modern Liaoning) in the Ming dynasty, conquered during the transition from Ming to Qing by Nurhaci, who formed separate units for Chinese speakers called Nikan (Manchu: ᠨᡳᡴᠠᠨ, Hu: nikan), who fought under black banners.[12] Over time, membership expanded to also include inhabitants from the newly-conquered regions of China.[13]

The Han Chinese Eight Banners originated primarily from Han Chinese populations within the early Manchu Eight Banners (zh), initially holding a lower status. During the Chongde era (zh), their expertise in casting and operating artillery led Emperor Hong Taiji to organize them into separate banners, establishing their role as the "artillery corps" within the Eight Banners. Beyond artillery skills, the Han Chinese Eight Banners had inherent advantages in terrain familiarity, intelligence gathering, and persuading defections, making them the vanguard in the Qing conquest of China.[14] By the mid-Qing, as the Eight Banners population grew, livelihood issues emerged, prompting the Qing court to mandate that the most recently integrated Han Chinese bannermen—those who joined after the conquest— exit the Eight Banners (zh) to alleviate resource pressures. Only the pre-conquest Liaodong "Old Han Army" remained. By the late Qing, ethnic distinctions within the banners blurred, and Han Chinese bannermen were increasingly assimilated into Manchu culture.

History

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Formation of Separate Banners

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File:수원 화성 홍이포.jpg
Red Cannon.

The Han Chinese Eight Banners primarily originated from individuals who voluntarily surrendered or were captured by the Later Jin and its successor, the Qing dynasty, in Liaodong,[15] predominantly Han Chinese, with a small number of Sinicized Jurchens and Mongols who had served in the Ming administration.[16] Initially, they were incorporated into the Manchu Eight Banners (zh)[17] with relatively low status due to harsh policies under Nurhaci. After Hong Taiji ascended the throne, efforts were made to improve their status, with the creation of the Han Army being a key manifestation.[18]

Before 1631 (Tiancong 5), the Later Jin lacked artillery, facing significant challenges in siege warfare. That year, Hong Taiji, leveraging the expertise of Wang Tianxiang, captured during the Yongping campaign, ordered the casting of red cannons and established the first Han Army banner, marked by a green banner, led by prince-consort Tong Yangxing (zh), known as the "heavy troops".[2] The term "heavy troops" in Manchu reflected their role in casting and managing artillery, establishing the Han Army as the Eight Banners' "heavy artillery corps".[2][3] The importance of artillery elevated the Han Army's status.[2]

In 1637 (Chongde 2), the Han Army expanded to two banners, retaining green banners. By 1639, it grew to four banners with colors of plain green with yellow, white, red, and plain green borders. During the one-, two-, and four-banner phases, Han Army personnel remained under the Manchu banner division, with colors used to distinguish troop types.[19] In 1642 (Chongde 7), following the victory in the Battle of Song-Jin, surrendered personnel from this battle and the earlier Dalinghe campaign were organized into companies, forming the Han Chinese Eight Banners with the same colors as the Manchu Eight Banners, granting them independent banner status.[20]

Role in the Qing Conquest

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File:洪承畴.jpg
Former Ming Grand Secretary and Minister of War Hong Chengchou, incorporated into the Han Chinese Bordered Yellow Banner, played a significant role in the Qing conquest of China.

In 1631 the first separate Han artillery corps was formed by Hong Taiji,[9] and later created the first two Banners in 1637, another four in 1639, finally reaching eight in 1642,[21] two years before the conquest of Beijing in 1644. The colors were the same as the Manchu banners: Yellow, White, Red and Blue; with each one having a "bordered" version in red, excepting the Red Banner, whose border was white.[22]

After the Qing began their conquest of China in 1644, the numbers of the Han Banners swelled with Chinese defectors. According to the capital banner lists, in 1720, nearing the end of the Kangxi reign, the Hanjun population under arms in Beijing exceeded Manchus and Mongols combined, at around 197,000 compared to 148,000 and 42,000, respectively.

The Han Chinese Eight Banners played an important role in Qing conquest of Ming. After that Qing dynasty started governing the whole China. After this period being admitted into the Han Chinese Eight Banners (Chinese: 擡旗) became an honor for ordinary Han Chinese people.[14]

During the latter half of the 17th century, some members of the Han Chinese Eight Banners were required to leave it. This was known as "Hanjun Chuqi" in Chinese (Chinese: 漢軍出旗).[23]

The Han Chinese Eight Banners were pivotal in the Qing conquest of China. Their familiarity with the terrain and intelligence on enemy movements gave them an edge over the Manchu Eight Banners after entering the pass.[14] Facing millions of anti-Qing forces, the Han Army demonstrated superior combat effectiveness, becoming the vanguard in campaigns across the south and west. In siege warfare and mountainous southern regions, where Manchu cavalry was less effective, the Han Army became the primary force.[14]

The Han Army also managed the newly incorporated Han Chinese forces, known as the Green Standard Army.[14] As ethnic tensions intensified post-conquest, direct Manchu control over these forces often led to resistance or re-defection. The Qing rulers either appointed Han Army officers to lead the Green Standard Army or integrated former Ming officers into the Han Army to command their original units.[14] This approach ensured control while maximizing combat effectiveness.[14]

The direct employment of Han Army talent was critical in weakening anti-Qing resistance, demonstrating that surrender could lead to significant roles, as seen with Hong Chengchou, whose strategies in the southwest turned the tide.[24] As Qing campaigns extended south, Manchu forces became stretched, making the Han Army a key component of garrison forces, often mixed with Manchu and Mongol banners. After the suppression of the Three Feudatories, Han Army troops were stationed in coastal provinces like Fujian and Guangdong.[24]

Post-conquest, the Han Army stabilized the Qing regime by helping Manchu rulers adapt to Chinese conditions, drawing on Ming institutions.[25] Figures like Fan Wencheng, Ning Wanwo (zh), Zhang Cunren, and Hong Chengchou served as "special advisors," influencing the emperor and Manchu nobility on political, economic, military, cultural, and ethnic matters, except for Manchu privileges.[25] To govern the mainland, the Qing created Han Army-specific positions, with many governors and viceroys being Han Army members.[26] Amid sharp ethnic tensions, the Han Army acted as a buffer, balancing Manchu privileges with policies tolerable to the Han Chinese.[27] Scholars argue that without the Han Army’s support, the Qing might not have secured and stabilized control over China.[27] As the Qing regime stabilized and Manchu rulers gained experience, the Han Army's role diminished.[27]

Notable Han Army families, such as those of Li Yongfang, Fan Wencheng, Tong Yangxing (zh), Shi Tingzhu (zh), Shang Kexi, Geng Zhongming, Shen Zhixiang, Zhang Dayou (zh), Bao Chengxian (zh), Zu Dashou, Ma Guangyuan, Cai Shiying (1675) (zh), Sun Degong (zh), Wang Shixuan (1661) (zh), Zuo Menggeng (zh), and Shi Lang, were ennobled for their contributions. The "Shang, Geng, Shi, Li, Tong, Zu, Cai, Wang" families are known as the "Eight Great Han Army Surnames".[28] Despite their generally lower status compared to Manchu and Mongol banners,[18][29] especially after the mid-Qing abolition of Han Army-specific positions, these families enjoyed high treatment, with descendants occasionally appointed to Manchu positions due to their merit.[30]

Military Campaigns

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They participated in the Second Joseon Campaign (1636-1637), the Liaoxi campaign (1638–1642)

The end of the system

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In the middle of the 18th century, the Manchu Banners were in a problematic financial state.

Mid-Qing Exodus

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By the late Kangxi era, population growth within the Eight Banners led to livelihood issues. One solution was to mandate that less senior Han Army members exit the Eight Banners.[31] These individuals, often retaining strong Han Chinese customs, were viewed differently by Qing rulers.[32] In 1742 (Qianlong 7), Emperor Qianlong ordered the exodus of post-conquest Han Army members, including those from the Three Feudatories, sparing the pre-conquest Liaodong "Old Han Army".[33] In 1723 (Yongzheng 1), the Han Army and Han bondservants totaled over 440,000, about 72% of the Eight Banners population. By 1796 (Jiaqing 1), after the exodus, this dropped to 43%, reflecting the scale of the policy.[23]

Assimilation into Manchu Identity

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Further information: Manchu people

After the exodus, the remaining Han Army, mostly descendants of the Old Han Army, had largely assimilated into Manchu culture (zh), adopting Manchu customs and language. French missionary Joachim Bouvet referred to them as "Tartarized Chinese" in his work L'Empereur Kangxi.[34] By the late Qianlong era, the Qing-compiled National History Biographies included Han Army figures in the Manchu Eminent Ministers Biographies.[35] By the late Qing, distinctions between Manchu, Mongol, and Han Army banners had largely vanished,[36] fostering a shared bannerman identity.[37] In the Republic era, most Han Army descendants identified as Manchu[38] and were no longer seen as Han Chinese by the Han population.[38] Calling them Han Chinese based on their ancestry could cause offense.[39] The descendants of Shang Kexi, who used the Manchu surname Shageda, are a notable example.[40] Recent media reports have highlighted their Manchu identity.[41] Descendants of Chang Yuchun, a Ming dynasty founder, also identified as Manchu under the Plain White Banner.[42]

Ambiguities

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In the Eight Banners system, bondservant organizations' military units were sometimes referred to as "Han Army," such as Bondservant Han Army, Banner Drum Han Army, or Imperial Household Han Army, or simply Han Army,[43] but these were part of the Manchu banner bondservant system, not the Han Chinese Eight Banners.[44]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ The Chinese term means "heavy troops" or "heavy artillery troops".
  2. ^ Although the Eight Banners system comprised Manchu, Mongol, and Han Chinese divisions, totaling "twenty-four banners," administratively they were grouped as "three banners as one," not operating independently. Thus, in the Qing dynasty (especially in its early period), the official term was "Eight Banners Han Army," with "Eight Banners" preceding the ethnic designation. By the late Qing, the term "Han Chinese Eight Banners" became a customary name and has been used since.

References

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  1. ^ 傅恒 等 奉清高宗御敕 撰 1986, p. 96.
  2. ^ a b c d 陈佳华 & 傅克东 1981, p. 19.
  3. ^ a b 杜家骥 2008, p. 31.
  4. ^ 傅波 2005, p. 96.
  5. ^ 杜家骥 2008, p. 46.
  6. ^ Or simply called Han Army Banner.
  7. ^ 杜家骥 2008, p. 38.
  8. ^ Elliott, Mark C. “Bannerman and townsman: Ethnic tension in nineteenth-century Jiangnan,” Late Imperial China, 11, No. 1 (June 1990), pp. 36–74
  9. ^ a b 陈佳华 & 傅克东 1981, p. 17.
  10. ^ After the fall of the Qing dynasty, the Eight Banners Office was retained as part of the Conditions of Abdication, under the Republic of China Beijing Government's Ministry of War, handling tasks such as the distribution of stipends to bannermen. In 1928, following the success of the Northern Expedition, the Eight Banners Office was abolished.
  11. ^ 中国社会科学院近代史研究所政治史研究室 2011, pp. 553, 555–556.
  12. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  13. ^ 陈佳华 & 傅克东 1981, pp. 17–20.
  14. ^ a b c d e f g 谢景芳 1986, p. 84.
  15. ^ 陈佳华 & 傅克东 1981, pp. 17–18.
  16. ^ 赵尔巽 等 1998, pp. 9285, 9323, 9331.
  17. ^ 杜家骥 2008, p. 35.
  18. ^ a b 陈佳华 & 傅克东 1981, p. 20.
  19. ^ 杜家骥 2008, pp. 34, 38.
  20. ^ 杜家骥 2008, p. 34.
  21. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  22. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  23. ^ a b 刘小萌 2008, p. 70.
  24. ^ a b 谢景芳 1986, p. 85.
  25. ^ a b 谢景芳 1986, p. 86.
  26. ^ 杜家骥 2008, pp. 422–423.
  27. ^ a b c 谢景芳 1986, pp. 86–87.
  28. ^ 吉祥满族：汉军八旗八大姓氏简述 ("Auspicious Manchu: Brief Introduction to the Eight Major Surnames of the Han Army Banners").
  29. ^ 谢景芳 1986, p. 90.
  30. ^ 昭梿 1980, p. 224.
  31. ^ 刘小萌 2008, pp. 66–70.
  32. ^ 刘小萌 2008, p. 67.
  33. ^ 刘小萌 2008, p. 67, 70.
  34. ^ 刘小萌 2008, p. 66.
  35. ^ 中国社会科学院近代史研究所政治史研究室 2011, p. 92.
  36. ^ 金启孮 2009, p. 27.
  37. ^ 张佳生 2008, pp. 230, 231, 236, 237.
  38. ^ a b 金启孮 2009, p. 5 (Overview).
  39. ^ 张佳生 2008, p. 236.
  40. ^ 傅波 2005, p. 431.
  41. ^ 吉林资讯：四平恋人举办满族婚礼 新娘是清朝王爷尚可喜后人（转自城市晚报）[Jilin News: Siping couple holds Manchu wedding — bride is a descendant of Qing dynasty prince Shang Kexi (reposted from City Evening News)].
  42. ^ 张佳生 2008, pp. 233, 234.
  43. ^ 杜家骥 2008, p. 438.
  44. ^ 鄂尔泰 等 1985, pp. 25–190.

Bibliography

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Books
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Journal articles
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