Yukjin Korean
| Yukjin | |
|---|---|
| Yukchin / Ryukjin / Ryukchin | |
| 六邑말 / 뉴웁말 / Nyuup-mal / 여섯 고을 말 / Yeoseot goeul mal | |
| Native to | North Korea, China |
| Region | Yukjin |
| Ethnicity | Koreans, formerly Jaegaseung |
Early forms | |
| Hangul | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | – |
| ELP | Lua error in Module:Endangered_Languages_Project at line 21: attempt to index field 'wikibase' (a nil value). |
| Korean name | |
| Hangul | 육진 방언, 륙진 방언, 여섯 고을 사투리 |
| Hanja | 六鎭方言 |
| RR | Yukjin bangeon, Ryukjin bangeon, Yeoseot goeul saturi |
| MR | Yukchin pangŏn, Ryukchin pangŏn, Yŏsŏt koŭl sat'uri |
| Ryukjin language | |
| Hangul | 륙진어, 육진어, 여섯 고을 말 |
| Hanja | 六鎭語 |
| RR | Ryukjineo, Yukjineo, Yeoseot goeul mal |
| MR | Ryukchinŏ, Yukchinŏ, Yŏsŏt koŭl mal |
The Yukjin dialect (Yukjin Korean: 뉴웁말; Hanja: 六鎭말; RR: Nyuummal[1][a]) is a variety of Korean or a separate Koreanic language spoken in the historic Yukjin region of northeastern Korea, south of the Tumen River. Its phonology and lexicon are unusually conservative, preserving many Middle Korean forms. Thus, Alexander Vovin classified it as a distinct language.[2]
Yukjin speakers currently live not only in the Tumen River homeland, now part of North Korea, but also in the Korean diaspora in Northeast China and Central Asia that formed in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The dialect is under pressure from the Gyeonggi ("Seoul") dialect, the prestige dialect, as well as local Chinese and Central Asian languages.
History and distribution
[edit | edit source]
The Sino-Korean term 六鎭 ryukchin 'six garrisons' refers to the six towns of Hoeryŏng, Chongsŏng, Onsŏng, Kyŏngwŏn, Kyŏnghŭng, and Puryŏng, all located south of a bend of the Tumen River. The area of these towns belonged to the Tungusic-speaking Jurchen people until the early fifteenth century, when King Sejong conquered the area into Korea's Hamgyong Province and peopled the six towns with immigrants from southeastern Korea. The Yukjin dialect is the distinctive Koreanic variety spoken by their descendants.[3][4]Lua error: not enough memory.
The Yukjin dialect of the six towns is further divided into an eastern variety, typified by the speech of Onsŏng and Kyŏngwŏn, and a western variety as spoken in Hoeryŏng and Chongsŏng. The eastern variety preserves more phonological archaisms.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. Some analyses consider the language of Kyŏnghŭng and Puryŏng to belong to the mainstream Hamgyong dialect rather than to Yukjin.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.
Yukjin is divergent from the dialect prevalent in the rest of Hamgyŏng Province, called the Hamgyŏng dialect, and generally more closely aligned with the western Pyongan dialect.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. Some of the earliest descriptions of Hamgyŏng dialects—from the seventeenth century—already noted that the speech of the Yukjin area was different from that of the rest of Hamgyŏng.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. The 1693 provincial gazette Bukgwan-ji stated that while most of Hamgyŏng had a "most divergent" dialect, the Yukjin area had "no provincial speech" of its own because it had been settled by people from the southern provinces, who continued to use the standard southern dialects.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.[b] In 1773, the high-ranking official Yu Ui-yang also wrote that the language of Yukjin was easier to understand than southern Hamgyŏng dialects because it was more similar to southern varieties of Korean, although he conceded that "when I first heard it, it was difficult to understand".Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.[c]
Despite these previous similarities to southern dialects, Yukjin has now become the most conservative mainland variety of KoreanLua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. because it was not subject to many of the Early Modern phonological shifts that produced the modern mainland dialects. The Hamgyŏng dialect, which participated in these shifts, now resembles the southern dialects to a greater extent than does Yukjin.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.
In response to poor harvests in the 1860s, Yukjin speakers began emigrating to the southern part of Primorsky Krai in the Russian Far East.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. Their speech was recorded in a dictionary compiled in 1874 by Mikhail Putsillo, and in materials compiled in 1904 by native speakers who were students at the Kazan Teacher's Seminary.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. Larger waves of immigrants from other parts of North Hamgyŏng arrived in the area in the 1910s and 1920s, fleeing the Japanese annexation of Korea.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.
In the 1930s, Stalin ordered the forced resettlement of the entire Korean population of the Russian Far East, some 250,000 people. The main destinations were concentrated particularly in what is now Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. There are small Korean communities scattered throughout Central Asia maintaining forms of Korean known collectively as Koryo-mar, but their language is under severe pressure from local languages and Gyeonggi (Seoul) Korean.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.
About 10 percent of Koryo-mar speakers use the Ryukjin language/dialect.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.
The Japanese annexation of Korea also triggered migration from northern parts of Korea to eastern Manchuria, and more Koreans were forcibly transferred there in the 1930s as part of the Japanese occupation of Manchuria.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. Linguists in China divide the Korean varieties spoken in Northeast China into Northwestern (Pyongan), North-central (Hamgyŏng) and Northeastern (Yukjin) groups.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. The latter are spoken in the easternmost part of Jilin, China.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.
Consequently, the dialect's current speakers are scattered between the traditional Tumen River homeland, now part of North Hamgyong and Rason, North Korea; Korean communities in parts of Northeast China; Koryo-saram communities in the post-Soviet states; and people from the Yukjin region who have fled to South Korea since the division of Korea in the 1940s.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. Kim Thay-kyun studied the speech of North Hamgyong refugees in the 1980s.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. Research on speakers currently residing in the North Korean homeland is rare, and conducted primarily by Chinese researchers of Korean ethnicity.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. The dialect appears to have declined in North Korea due to extensive state promotion of the North Korean standard language.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.
The Jaegaseung, descendants of Jurchen people who lived in the Tumen River valley, spoke Yukjin Korean despite their isolation from mainstream Korean society.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.
Phonology
[edit | edit source]The Ryukjin dialect has eight vowels, corresponding to the eight vowels of standard Seoul Korean.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. In Yukjin, the vowel Lua error: not enough memory. (standard Seoul Lua error: not enough memory.) is more open and Lua error: not enough memory. (Seoul Lua error: not enough memory.) is more backed.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. Unlike in Seoul Korean, where the Middle Korean vowel Lua error: not enough memory. almost always shifted to Lua error: not enough memory. in the first syllable of a word, Yukjin shifted Lua error: not enough memory. to Lua error: not enough memory. after labial consonants.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.
For some speakers, there is an additional vowel, transcribed Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., intermediate between Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. and Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1..Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. This vowel represents an intermediate stage in a diachronic sound shift from Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. > Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. > Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.. The sound shift is now complete for younger speakers and the vowel has disappeared among them, although older speakers retain the vowel.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.
Like Seoul Korean, Yukjin has a limited vowel harmony system in which only a verb stem whose final (or only) vowel is Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., or Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. can take a suffix beginning with the vowel Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.. Other verb stems take an allomorphic suffix beginning with Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.. Vowel harmony is in the process of change among younger speakers in China, with all stems ending in Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. and multisyllabic stems ending in Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. now taking the Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. variant of the suffix as well.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. These are new divergences between Yukjin and the Seoul standard.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.
In Yukjin, the consonant Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. is usually realized as its typically North Korean value, Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.. It is realized as Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. before Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., and the consonant-glide sequence Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. is also realized as the single affricate Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1..Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. In the post-Soviet varieties of Yukjin, the phoneme Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.—realized as the tap Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. intervocally and Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. otherwise in most other Korean dialects—is always realized as Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. or the trill Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., except when followed by another Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1..Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. In non-Soviet dialects, Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. is obligatory intervocally, while Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. and Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. may both be used otherwise.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.
Many features of Middle Korean survive in the dialect, including:[d]
- the pitch accent otherwise found only in other Hamgyong varieties and the southern Gyeongsang dialectLua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.
- the distinction between Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. and Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., preserved only in YukjinLua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.
- a lack of palatalization of Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. into Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.
- preservation of initial Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. before Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. and Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.
- preservation of Middle Korean alternative noun stems that appear when followed by a vowel-initial suffix, e.g. Yukjin Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. "tree" but Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. "in the tree" (Middle Korean Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. and Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., Seoul Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. and Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.)Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.
In some respects, Yukjin is more conservative than fifteenth-century Middle Korean.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. For example, Middle Korean had voiced fricatives Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., and Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., which have disappeared in most modern dialects.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Evidence from internal reconstruction suggests that these consonants arose from lenition of Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., and Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. in voiced environments.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Yukjin often retains Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., and Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. in these words:Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.[e]
| English | Middle Korean | Seoul Korean | Yukjin |
|---|---|---|---|
| to inform | Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. | Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. | Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. |
| autumn | Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. | Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. | Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. |
| silkworm | *Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.[f] *nwuWey Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. | Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. | Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. |
Similarly, the Middle Korean word Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. 'two' has one syllable, but its rising pitch indicates that it is descended from an earlier disyllabic form with high pitch on the second syllable, and some Old Korean renderings also suggest two syllables.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Some Yukjin varieties have Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. for this word, preserving the older disyllabic form.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. The dialect has accordingly been described as a highly conservative phonological "relic area".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.
Grammar
[edit | edit source]Nouns
[edit | edit source]| Case | After consonant | After non-rounded vowel | After rounded vowel (Sometimes labial consonants) | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. | The marker causes a final Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. to be dropped and also causes umlaut, e.g. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. becomes Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.. For most Koryo-saram speakers, the umlauted forms with Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. are the new underlying forms for most forms originally with Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.. Unlike all other currently spoken Koreanic varieties, Yukjin lacks the nominative allomorph Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., found after a vowel in other dialects. | ||
| Accusative | Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. | Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. | Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.) | Cognate to Middle and Modern Korean Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., with the final liquid dropped. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. is sometimes realized as a single tap [ɾ].Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. |
| Instrumental | Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. | Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. | Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. | Cognate to Standard Korean Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., Middle Korean Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. |
| Dative-locative | Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. for inanimates and Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. for animates | Cognate to Standard Korean Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., and Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. | ||
| Genitive | nominative marker generally used | Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. | Middle Korean Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., phonetically Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., may have been reanalyzed as a sequence of two nominative markers (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.) which was then reduced to a single nominative. | |
| Ablative | Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. for inanimates and Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. for animates | Cognate to Standard Korean Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. and Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. | ||
Verbs
[edit | edit source]Most analyses of the verbal paradigm identify three speech levels of formality and politeness, which are distinguished by sentence-final suffixes. Scholars differ on which suffixes mark which speech level.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Several formal-level markers have an allomorph beginning with Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. after consonants, reflecting their origin as a compound of a preexisting marker and the honorific-marking verb-internal suffix Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., which takes the allomorph Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. after a verb stem ending in a vowel.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Mood-marking sentence-final suffixes which have been identified by Chinese, Korean, and Western researchers include:[d]
| Suffix | Mood | Speech level | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. |
Declarative, Interrogative, ImperativeLua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. | Formal | The etymologically more transparent form Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. is also found.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. There is a related form Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. with an apparently identical function, which is no longer widely in use by North Korean speakers. Contracted forms such as Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. and Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. are also found, and have a more casual connotation.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. The suffix is intonated differently depending on the mood.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Younger speakers in China tend to use Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., the Standard Korean equivalent.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. |
| Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. |
More formal and less intimate than Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.. It is not currently widely used in North Korea outside the town of Hoeryŏng. Variants such as Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., and Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. have been attested.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. The marker is rare among speakers outside North Korea.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. The suffix is intonated differently depending on the mood.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. | ||
| Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. |
Most commonly neutral, but found in all speech levelsLua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. | Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. is used after non-liquid consonants.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. In verb stems ending with Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. or Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., including the positive copula Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. "to be" and the negative copula Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. "to not be", it may be omitted.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. This versatile suffix is also found in the Gyeongsang dialect, but only as a formal marker.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. | |
| Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. |
Declarative | Neutral | An innovation widespread in casual speech,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. this suffix is also found in non-Yukjin Hamgyong dialects, and was previously found in the Pyongan dialect.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. |
| Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. |
Informal | Found throughout Korean dialects as a declarative marker and attested since Old Korean. | |
| Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. |
Interrogative | Formal | An interrogative marker unique to Yukjin.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. The second vowel is usually nasalized, but the non-nasalized variant Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. is also found. Younger speakers in China prefer Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., loaned from Standard Korean Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1..Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. |
| Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. |
Informal | It also takes the form Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., apparently without any semantic difference.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. It may combine with a preceding past tense marker Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. as Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., and with the retrospective marker Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. as Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1..Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Found throughout Korean dialects as an interrogative marker. | |
| Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. |
Imperative | Formal | Etymologically formed from the versatile suffix Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., this suffix is also found as Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. or Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1..Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. |
| Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. |
Informal | Found in Standard Korean as an informal imperative marker. In modern North Korean dialects, Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. may be nasalized to Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.. In Onsŏng, the variant Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. is common; in Hoeryŏng, Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1..Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. | |
| Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. |
An unusual marker restricted to mothers speaking to their children, attested from Koryo-saram sources.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. | ||
| Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. |
Propositive | Formal | Also attested as Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. and Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1..Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Etymologically a compound of Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. and the aforementioned Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1..Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. |
| Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. |
Neutral | Also attested as Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. and Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1..Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Etymologically a compound of Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. and Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1..Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. | |
| Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. |
InformalLua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. | Also found in Standard Korean. | |
| Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. |
Exclamatory | — | Pronounced similarly to Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., but does not take an allomorph with Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. even after a consonantLua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. |
Syntax
[edit | edit source]Highly unusually, the Yukjin negative particle (such as Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. 'not', Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. 'cannot') intervenes between the main verb and the auxiliary, unlike in other Koreanic varieties (except other Hamgyŏng varieties) where the particle either precedes the main verb or follows the auxiliary.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.
| Yukjin | Seoul |
|---|---|
| Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. | Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. |
When followed by the verb Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. 'to be like', the normally adnominal verbal suffixes Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. and Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. function as nominalizers.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Nominalization was the original function of the two suffixes, being the main attested use in Old Korean, but was already rare in the Middle Korean of the early fifteenth century.
Lexicon
[edit | edit source]The basic Yukjin lexicon is unusually archaic, preserving many forms attested in Middle Korean but since lost in other dialects.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Remarkably, no distinction is made between maternal and paternal relatives, unlike other Korean dialects (including Jeju) which distinguish maternal uncles, aunts, and grandparents from paternal ones.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. This may reflect weaker influence from patriarchal norms promoted by the Neo-Confucian Joseon state.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.
There are a few loans from Jurchen or its descendant Manchu. This includes[d] the verb stem Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. 'to breed an animal', from the Manchu verb stem Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. 'to copulate [for dogs]' with the Koreanic causative suffix Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. attached; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. 'wicker basket' from Manchu Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. 'id.'; and Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. 'goose-catching snare' from Manchu Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. 'id.'Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. There are also a few loanwords from Northeastern Mandarin.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. Among remaining speakers in the post-Soviet states, there are many Russian borrowings and calques.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.
Notes
[edit | edit source]- ^ South Korean Standard: Yukjin bangeon, North Korean: 륙진방언; Ryukchin pangŏn, [1]
- ^ Classical Chinese original: "Lua error: not enough memory."Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.
- ^ Early Modern Korean original: "Lua error: not enough memory."Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.
- ^ a b c d e Korean forms given in Yale Romanization, the standard for Korean linguistics
- ^ There is an ongoing sound shift in Yukjin dialects in which some cases of intervocalic Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. is becoming Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. through an intermediary Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1., the same sound shift that affected central Korean dialects several centuries ago.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. In some words, Yukjin lacks a corresponding Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. form for Middle Korean Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1..Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.
- ^ Reconstructed; the loss of Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1. is already complete in the earliest attested form of the word.
Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.
References
[edit | edit source]Citations
[edit | edit source]Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.
Works cited
[edit | edit source]- Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.
- Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.
- Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.
- Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.
- Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.
- Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.
- Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.
- Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.
- Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.
- Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.
- Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.
- Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.
Further reading
[edit | edit source]- Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.
- Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.
- Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.
Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.
Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1.