Comparison of multi-paradigm programming languages

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Programming languages can be grouped by the number and types of paradigms supported.

Paradigm summaries

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A concise reference for the programming paradigms listed in this article.

  • Concurrent programming – have language constructs for concurrency, these may involve multi-threading, support for distributed computing, message passing, shared resources (including shared memory), or futures
    • Actor programming – concurrent computation with actors that make local decisions in response to the environment (capable of selfish or competitive behaviour)
  • Constraint programming – relations between variables are expressed as constraints (or constraint networks), directing allowable solutions (uses constraint satisfaction or simplex algorithm)
  • Dataflow programming – forced recalculation of formulas when data values change (e.g. spreadsheets)
  • Declarative programming – describes what computation should perform, without specifying detailed state changes cf. imperative programming (functional and logic programming are major subgroups of declarative programming)
  • Distributed programming – have support for multiple autonomous computers that communicate via computer networks
  • Functional programming – uses evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data
  • Generic programming – uses algorithms written in terms of to-be-specified-later types that are then instantiated as needed for specific types provided as parameters
  • Imperative programming – explicit statements that change a program state
  • Logic programming – uses explicit mathematical logic for programming
  • Metaprogramming – writing programs that write or manipulate other programs (or themselves) as their data, or that do part of the work at compile time that would otherwise be done at runtime
    • Template metaprogramming – metaprogramming methods in which a compiler uses templates to generate temporary source code, which is merged by the compiler with the rest of the source code and then compiled
    • Reflective programming – metaprogramming methods in which a program modifies or extends itself
  • Object-oriented programming – uses data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions (objects) to design programs
    • Class-based – object-oriented programming in which inheritance is achieved by defining classes of objects, versus the objects themselves
    • Prototype-based – object-oriented programming that avoids classes and implements inheritance via cloning of instances
  • Pipeline programming – a simple syntax change to add syntax to nest function calls to language originally designed with none
  • Rule-based programming – a network of rules of thumb that comprise a knowledge base and can be used for expert systems and problem deduction & resolution
  • Visual programming – manipulating program elements graphically rather than by specifying them textually (e.g. Simulink); also termed diagrammatic programming[1]

Language overview

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List of multi-paradigm programming languages
Language
Paradigm count
Concurrent
Constraints
Dataflow
Declarative
Distributed
Functional
Metaprogramming
Generic
Imperative
Logic
Reflection
Object-oriented
Pipelines
Visual
Rule-based
 Other
Ada[2][3][4][5][6] 5 Yes[a 1] — — — Yes — — Yes Yes — — Yes[a 2] — — — —
ALF 2 — — — — — Yes — — — Yes — — — — — —
AmigaE
[citation needed]		 2 — — — — — — — — Yes — — Yes[a 2] — — — —
APL 3 — — — — — Yes — — Yes — — — — — — Array (multi-dimensional)
BETA
[citation needed]		 3 — — — — — Yes — — Yes — — Yes[a 2] — — — —
C++ 7 (15) Yes[7][8][9] Library[10] Library[11][12] Library[13][14] Library[15][16] Yes Yes[17] Yes[a 3] Yes Library[18][19] Library[20] Yes[a 2] Library[21] — Library[22] Array (multi-dimensional; using STL)
C# 6 (7) Yes — Library[a 4] — — Yes[a 5] — Yes Yes — Yes Yes[a 2] — — — Reactive[a 6]
ChucK
[citation needed]		 3 Yes — — — — — — — Yes — — Yes[a 2] — — — —
Claire 2 — — — — — Yes — — — — — Yes[a 2] — — — —
Clojure 5 Yes[23][24] — — Yes — Yes[25] Yes[26] — — Library[27] — — Yes[28] — — Multiple dispatch,[29] Agents[30]
Common Lisp 7 (14) Library[31] Library[32] Library[33] Yes[34] Library[35] Yes Yes Yes[36] Yes Library[37] Yes Yes[a 7][a 2][38] Library[39] Library[40] Library[41] Multiple dispatch, meta-OOP system,[42] Language is extensible via metaprogramming.
Curl 5 — — — — — Yes — Yes[a 3] Yes — Yes Yes[a 2] — — — —
Curry 4 Yes Yes — — — Yes — — — Yes — — — — — —
D (version 2.0)[43][44] 7 Yes[a 8] — — — — Yes Yes[45][a 3] Yes[a 3] Yes — Yes Yes[a 2] — — — —
Delphi 3 — — — — — — — Yes[a 3] Yes — — Yes[a 2] — — — —
Dylan
[citation needed]		 3 — — — — — Yes — — — — Yes Yes[a 2] — — — —
E 3 Yes — — — Yes — — — — — — Yes[a 2] — — — —
ECMAScript[46][47] (ActionScript, E4X, JavaScript, JScript) 4 (5) Partial[a 9][a 10] — — Library[48][49] — Yes — — Yes — Yes Yes[a 11] Library[50][51] — — Reactive,[a 12][52] event driven[a 13][a 14]
Erlang 3 Yes — — Yes Yes Yes — — — — — — Yes — — —
Elixir 4 Yes — — — Yes Yes Yes — — — — — Yes — — —
Elm 6 Yes — Yes Yes — Yes (pure)[a 15] — Yes — — — — Yes — — Reactive
F# 7 (8) Yes[a 8] — Library[a 4] Yes — Yes — Yes Yes — Yes Yes[a 2] — — — Reactive[a 6]
Fortran 4 (5) Yes — — — — Yes[a 15] — Yes[a 16] — — — Yes[a 2] — — — Array (multi-dimensional)
Go 4 Yes — — — — — — — Yes — Yes — Yes — — —
Haskell 8 (15) Yes Library[53] Library[54] Yes Library[55] Yes (lazy) (pure)[a 15] Yes[56] Yes Yes Library[57] — Partial[a 17] Yes Yes Library[58] Literate, reactive, dependent types (partial)
Io 4 Yes[a 8] — — — — Yes — — Yes — — Yes[a 11] — — — —
J
[citation needed]		 3 — — — — — Yes — — Yes — — Yes[a 2] — — — —
Java 6 Yes Library[59] Library[60] — — Yes — Yes Yes — Yes Yes[a 2] — — — —
Julia 9 (17) Yes Library[61] Library[62][63] Library[64] Yes Yes (eager) Yes Yes Yes Library[65] Yes Partial[a 18] Yes — Library[66][67] Multiple dispatch,
Array (multi-dimensional); optionally lazy[68] and reactive (with libraries)
Kotlin 8 Yes — — — — Yes Yes Yes Yes — Yes Yes Yes — — —
LabVIEW 4 Yes — Yes — — — — — — — — Yes — Yes — —
Lava 2 — — — — — — — — — — — Yes[a 2] — Yes — —
LispWorks (version 6.0 with support for symmetric multi-processing, rules, logic (Prolog), CORBA) 9 Yes — — — Yes Yes Yes — Yes Yes Yes Yes[a 2] — — Yes —
Lua
[citation needed]		 3 — — — — — Yes — — Yes — — Yes[a 11] — — — —
MATLAB 6 (10) Toolbox[69] Toolbox[70] Yes[71] — Toolbox[72] — Yes[73] Yes[74] — — Yes[75] Yes[76] — Yes[77] — Array (multi-dimensional)
Nemerle 7 Yes — — — — Yes Yes Yes Yes — Yes Yes[a 2] — — — —
Object Pascal 4 Yes — — — — Yes — — Yes — — Yes[a 2] — — — —
OCaml 4 — — — — — Yes — Yes Yes — — Yes[a 2] — — — —
Oz 11 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes — — Yes Yes — Yes[a 2] Yes — Yes —
Perl
[citation needed]		 8 (9) Yes[78] — Yes[79] — — Yes Yes — Yes — Yes[a 2] Yes[a 2] Yes — — —
PHP[80][81][82] 4 — — — — — Yes — — Yes — Yes Yes[a 2] — — — —
Poplog 3 — — — — — Yes — — Yes Yes — — — — — —
Prograph 3 — — Yes — — — — — — — — Yes[a 2] — Yes — —
Python 5 (10) Library[83][84] Library[85] — — Library[86] Yes Yes[87][88] Yes[89][90] Yes Library[91] Yes Yes[a 2] — — — Structured
R 4 (6) Library[92] — — — Library[93] Yes — — Yes — Yes Yes Yes[94] — — Array (multi-dimensional)
Racket 10 Yes[95] Yes[96] Yes[97] — Yes[98] Yes Yes — Yes Yes Yes Yes — — — Lazy[99]
Raku 10 Yes[100] Library[101] Yes[102] — Library[103] Yes Yes[104] Yes[105] Yes — Yes[106] Yes[107] Yes — — Multiple dispatch, lazy lists, reactive.
ROOP 3 — — — — — — — — Yes Yes — — — — Yes —
Ruby 5 — — — — — Yes Yes — Yes — Yes Yes[a 2] — — — —
Rust (version 1.0.0-alpha) 6 Yes[a 8] — — — — Yes Yes[108][109] Yes[110] Yes — — Yes — — — Linear, affline, and ownership types
Sather
[citation needed]		 2 — — — — — Yes — — — — — Yes[a 2] — — — —
Scala[111][112] 9 Yes[a 8] — Yes[a 19] Yes — Yes Yes Yes Yes — Yes Yes[a 2] — — — —
Simula
[citation needed]		 2 — — — — — — — — Yes — — Yes[a 2] — — — —
SISAL 3 Yes — Yes — — Yes — — — — — — — — — —
Spreadsheets 2 — — — — — Yes — — — — — — — Yes — —
Swift 7 Yes — — — — Yes Yes Yes Yes — Yes Yes[a 2] — — — Block-structured
Tcl with Snit extension
[citation needed]		 3 — — — — — Yes[113] — — Yes — — Yes[a 11][114] — — — —
Visual Basic .NET 6 (7) Yes — Library[a 4] — — Yes — Yes Yes — Yes Yes[a 2] — — — Reactive[a 6]
Windows PowerShell 6 — — — — — Yes — Yes Yes — Yes Yes[a 2] Yes — — —
Wolfram Language & Mathematica 13[115] (14) Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes[116] — Yes Knowledge Based

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ rendezvous and monitor-like based
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai class-based
  3. ^ a b c d e template metaprogramming
  4. ^ a b c using TPL Dataflow
  5. ^ only lambda support (lazy functional programming)
  6. ^ a b c using Reactive Extensions (Rx)
  7. ^ multiple dispatch, method combinations
  8. ^ a b c d e actor programming
  9. ^ promises, native extensions
  10. ^ using Node.js' cluster module or child_process.fork method, web workers in the browser, etc.
  11. ^ a b c d Prototype-based
  12. ^ using Reactive Extensions (RxJS)
  13. ^ in Node.js via their events module
  14. ^ in browsers via their native EventTarget API
  15. ^ a b c purely functional
  16. ^ parameterized classes
  17. ^ immutable
  18. ^ Uses structs with function polymorphism and multiple dispatch
  19. ^ Akka Archived 2013-01-19 at the Wayback Machine

Citations

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  1. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  2. ^ Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 9: Tasks and Synchronization
  3. ^ Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3 Annex E: Distributed Systems
  4. ^ Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 12: Generic Units
  5. ^ Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 6: Subprograms
  6. ^ Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, 3.9 Tagged Types and Type Extensions
  7. ^ Thread support
  8. ^ Atomics support
  9. ^ Memory model
  10. ^ Gecode
  11. ^ SystemC
  12. ^ Boost.Iostreams
  13. ^ Boolinq
  14. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  15. ^ OpenMPI
  16. ^ Boost.MPI
  17. ^ Boost.MPL
  18. ^ LC++
  19. ^ Castor Archived 2013-01-25 at the Wayback Machine
  20. ^ Reflect Library
  21. ^ N3534
  22. ^ Boost.Spirit
  23. ^ Clojure - Concurrent Programming
  24. ^ Clojure - core.async
  25. ^ Clojure - Functional Programming
  26. ^ Clojure - Macros
  27. ^ Clojure - core.logic
  28. ^ Clojure - Threading Macros Guide
  29. ^ Multimethods and Hierarchies
  30. ^ Agents and Asynchronous Actions
  31. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  32. ^ [1] constraint programming inside CL through extensions
  33. ^ [2] dataflow extension
  34. ^ [3] by creating DSLs using the built-in metaprogramming; also see note on functional, constraint and logic paradigms, which are part of declarative
  35. ^ [4] MPI, etc via language extensions
  36. ^ template metaprogramming using macros (see C++)
  37. ^ [5] [6] [7] Prolog implemented as a language extension
  38. ^ Common Lisp Object System see Wikipedia article on CLOS, the Common Lisp Object System.
  39. ^ implemented by the user via a short macro, example of implementation
  40. ^ - Visual programming tool based on Common Lisp
  41. ^ [8] rule-based programming extension
  42. ^ [9] Archived 2018-04-26 at the Wayback Machine through the Meta Object Protocol
  43. ^ D Language Feature Table
  44. ^ Phobos std.algorithm
  45. ^ D language String Mixins
  46. ^ The Little JavaScripter demonstrates fundamental commonality with Scheme, a functional language.
  47. ^ Object-Oriented Programming in JavaScript Archived 2019-02-10 at the Wayback Machine gives an overview of object-oriented programming techniques in JavaScript.
  48. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  49. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  50. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  51. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  52. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  53. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  54. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  55. ^ Cloud Haskell
  56. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  57. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  58. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  59. ^ https://jcp.org/en/jsr/detail?id=331 JSR 331: Constraint Programming API
  60. ^ https://github.com/GoogleCloudPlatform/DataflowJavaSDK Google Cloud Platform Dataflow SDK
  61. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  62. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  63. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  64. ^ https://github.com/davidanthoff/Query.jl Query almost anything in julia
  65. ^ https://github.com/lilinjn/LilKanren.jl A collection of Kanren implementations in Julia
  66. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  67. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  68. ^ Lazy https://github.com/MikeInnes/Lazy.jl
  69. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  70. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  71. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  72. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  73. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  74. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  75. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  76. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  77. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  78. ^ interpreter based threads
  79. ^ Higher Order Perl
  80. ^ PHP Manual, Chapter 17. Functions
  81. ^ PHP Manual, Chapter 19. Classes and Objects (PHP 5)
  82. ^ PHP Manual, Anonymous functions
  83. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  84. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  85. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  86. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  87. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  88. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  89. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  90. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  91. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  92. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  93. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  94. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  95. ^ Racket Guide: Concurrency and Synchronization
  96. ^ The Rosette Guide
  97. ^ FrTime: A Language for Reactive Programs
  98. ^ Racket Guide: Distributed Places
  99. ^ Lazy Racket
  100. ^ Channels and other mechanisms
  101. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  102. ^ Feed operator
  103. ^ https://github.com/perl6/doc/issues/1744#issuecomment-360565196 Cro module
  104. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  105. ^ https://perl6advent.wordpress.com/2009/12/18/day-18-roles/ Parametrized Roles
  106. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  107. ^ https://docs.perl6.org/language/classtut Classes and Roles
  108. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  109. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  110. ^ The Rust Reference §6.1.3.1
  111. ^ An Overview of the Scala Programming Language
  112. ^ Scala Language Specification
  113. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  114. ^ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2172: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  115. ^ Notes for Programming Language Experts, Wolfram Language Documentation.
  116. ^ External Programs, Wolfram Language Documentation.

References

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  • Jim Coplien, Multiparadigm Design for C++, Addison-Wesley Professional, 1998.
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