Amianthium
| Fly poison | |
|---|---|
| File:Amianthium muscitoxicum (homeredwardprice) 003.jpg | |
| in Great Smoky Mountains National Park | |
Scientific classification 
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| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| Clade: | Tracheophytes |
| Clade: | Angiosperms |
| Clade: | Monocots |
| Order: | Liliales |
| Family: | Melanthiaceae |
| Tribe: | Melanthieae |
| Genus: | Amianthium A.Gray |
| Species: | A. muscitoxicum
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| Binomial name | |
| Amianthium muscitoxicum (Walter) A.Gray
| |
| Synonyms[4] | |
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Synonymy
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Amianthium is a genus of perennial monocot plants found in eastern North America.[5] The genus contains only one species, known as Amianthium muscitoxicum.[6] Its common names include "fly poison" and "stagger grass".[7] The species name muscitoxicum comes from a direct Latin translation of "fly poison": muscae = flies, toxicum = poison.[8] The entire plant is poisonous to an array of species, including humans, and the bulb is particularly toxic.[7][9] A. muscitoxicum was first recorded by Thomas Walter in his work Flora Caroliniana in 1788.[10]
Description
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Amianthium muscitoxicum blooms between May and July with small white flowers that turn greenish or purplish with age.[8] Its flowers form an indeterminate bracteate raceme inflorescence.[11] It blooms from the bottom of the inflorescence upwards, eventually forming small, bright orange fruits in the late summer or fall.[12]
A. muscitoxicum can grow 1–4 feet tall.[8] Its main leaves are at the base of the plant; they are thin and can grow more than 12in long.[8] It also has leaves along the length of the stem, but they are very reduced.[8]
Habitat and Distribution
[edit | edit source]Amianthium muscitoxicum is native to the eastern United States from New York to Florida and can be found as far west as Missouri and Oklahoma.[5] Its native habitats include oak forests, bogs, low pinelands, savannas, meadows, and sandhills.[7]
It does best in partial shade, with 1–2 hours of direct sunlight.[12] Companion plants include: longleaf pine, willow oak, mountain laurel, blueberries, galax, heartleaf, foamflowers, smilacina, Soloman's seal, dwarf iris, jack-in-the-pulpit, black cohosh, grasses.[12]
Mating and Sexual Systems
[edit | edit source]Amianthium muscitoxicum is self-incompatible and is mainly pollinated by five species of beetle, predominantly Strangalepta abbreviata.[13][14] These beetles are rewarded by nectar produced within each flower, with beetles spending significantly more time at flowers with higher nectar volumes.[14]
A. muscitoxicum exhibits partial dichogamy, meaning there is a separation in the timing of male and female reproductive function.[11] Specifically, it is protandrous, which means that the pollen is produced before the stigma becomes receptive to other pollen.[11] Nectar production varies with the sexual phase of each flower, accumulating through the lifecycle and peaking just after anthesis, when the flower blooms and is functional.[14] This species has a high potential for multiple mating, which generally increases fitness due to greater genetic diversity of seeds and a higher likelihood of a compatible cross.[15]
Toxicity
[edit | edit source]Amianthium muscitoxicum contains toxic alkaloids, and as such, is highly poisonous when ingested to livestock, humans and other animals.[7] Four toxic alkaloids, which are similar to neurotoxins,[7] have been isolated from the plant: jervine, two unknown ester alkaloids, and amianthine.[16] These alkaloids are found in all parts of the plant, with especially high concentration in the bulbs.[9]
Historical experiments tested the toxicity on sheep and cattle.[17] Observed symptoms included cessation of eating and excess production of saliva, nausea followed by vomiting, rapid pulse, rapid and irregular respiration, weakness, and difficulty walking.[17] When fatal, death occurred in about an hour.[17] This is the origin for "stagger grass" as a common name for this plant.[7]
Uses
[edit | edit source]Amianthium muscitoxicum's common name "fly poison," comes from its use by early colonists as a way to control flies.[12] The bulbs can be ground down and mixed with something sweet, such as molasses or honey, to attract flies.[17] When flies drink it, they become unstable and have difficulty moving.[17] After 24 hours or so, if the flies have not been removed, the poison will wear and off and they are seemingly fine.[17]
Classification
[edit | edit source]Amianthium muscitoxicum is a member of the family Melanthiaceae and the tribe Melanthieae.[4] Melanthieae contains seven genera, including Melanthium and Amianthium.[6] A. muscitoxicum, sometimes spelled muscaetoxicum,[8] was first classified in the genus Melanthium by Thomas Walter in 1788.[10] More recent molecular and genetic research has firmly classified it in the genus Amianthium, which is characterized by a unique alkaloid that it contains: amianthine.[18] A. muscitoxicum is the only species within this genus.[6] (See also Phylogeny of Melanthieae.)
Amianthium species which have been placed in other genera include:[4]
- Amianthium angustifolium A.Gray now called Stenanthium densum (Desr.) Zomlefer & Judd
- Amianthium aspericaule A.Gray) now called Triantha glutinosa (Michx.) Baker
- Amianthium leimanthoides A.Gray) now called Stenanthium densum (Desr.) Zomlefer & Judd
- Amianthium nuttallii A.Gray now called Toxicoscordion nuttallii (A.Gray) Rydb.
- Amianthium texanum (Bush) R.R.Gates now called Stenanthium densum (Desr.) Zomlefer & Judd
References
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- ^ Walter, Thomas 1788. Flora caroliniana : secundum systema vegetabilium perillustris Linnaei digesta; characteres essentiales naturalesve et differentias veras exhibens; cum emendationibus numerosis: descriptionum antea evulgatarum: adumbrationes stirpium plus mille continens: necnon, generibus novis non paucis, speciebus plurimis novisq. ornata 125 in Latin, as Melanthium muscaetoxicum
- ^ International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (Melbourne Code), section 60.8
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Citations
[edit | edit source]- ^ Illustration from Britton & Brown's An illustrated flora of the northern United States, Canada and the British Possessions. (1913) as Chrosperma muscitoxicum
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